爱尔兰共和国 (1919年-1922年)
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爱尔兰共和国（英语：Irish Republic，爱尔兰语：Poblacht na hÉireann或Saorstát Éireann）是由1916年复活节起义中宣告，1919年由第一届爱尔兰国会成立的单方面宣布独立的爱尔兰国家。它的存在期即1919-1922年在爱尔兰共和军和英国部队之间进行的的爱尔兰独立战争。 它于1922年结束战争的英爱条约被批准后正式停止存在。32郡中26郡成为爱尔兰自由邦，其余6郡继续作为北爱尔兰留在联合王国内。
一些非中文的文字因为尚未翻譯而被隐藏，歡迎參與翻譯。
[编辑] 名称In English, the revolutionary state was to be known as the 'Irish Republic' or, occasionally, the 'Republic of Ireland'. Two different Irish language titles were used: Poblacht na hÉireann and Saorstát Éireann, based on two alternative Irish translations of the word republic. The word 'poblacht' was a new word, coined by the writers of the Easter Proclamation in 1916. [2] Saorstát was a compound word based on the Irish words saor ("free") and stát ("state"). Its literal translation was "free state". The term Poblacht na hÉireann is the one used in the Proclamation of 1916, but the Declaration of Independence and other documents adopted in 1919 used Saorstát Éireann. Saorstát Éireann was adopted as the official Irish title of the Irish Free State when it was established at the end of the Anglo-Irish War (however this Free State was not a republic but a form of constitutional monarchy within the British Empire}. Since then, the word saorstát has fallen out of use as a translation of republic. When the Irish state became the Republic of Ireland in 1949, for example, its official Irish description became Poblacht na hÉireann. In ‘’The Aftermath’’[3], Winston Churchill gives an account of the first meeting of Eamon de Valera with David Lloyd George on 14 July 1921, at which he was present. Lloyd George was a noted Welsh linguist and as such was interested in the literal meaning of 'Saorstat'. De Valera replied that it meant 'Free State'. Lloyd George asked '..what is your Irish word for Republic?' After some delay and no reply, Lloyd George commented: 'Must we not admit that the Celts never were Republicans and have no native word for such an idea?' [编辑] 建立In 1916 nationalist rebels participating in the Easter Rising issued the Proclamation of the Republic. By this declaration they claimed to establish an independent state called the "Irish Republic" and proclaimed that the leaders of the rebellion would serve as the "Provisional Government of the Irish Republic" until it became possible to elect a national parliament. The Easter Rising was short-lived, largely limited to Dublin and, at the time it occurred, enjoyed little support from the Irish general public. The leaders of the Easter Rising had proclaimed a republic. Arthur Griffith's Sinn Féin organisation, which favoured the establishment of a form of dual monarchy between Ireland and Britain, had not taken part in the Rising. In 1917, Griffith's Sinn Féin and republicans under Éamon de Valera, came together to form the new Sinn Féin Party. A compromise was reached at the 1917 Ard Fheis (party conference), where it was agreed that the party would pursue the establishment of an independent republic in the short-term, until the Irish people could be given the opportunity to decide on the form of government they preferred. This agreement was subject to the condition that if the people chose monarchy, no member of the British royal family would be invited to serve as monarch. In the UK general election of 1918 candidates of the radical Sinn Féin party, including many who had participated in the 1916 rebellion, stood on a manifesto that committed the party to boycott the British Parliament and instead unilaterally establish a new Irish assembly in Dublin. Sinn Féin candidates won a large majority of seats, many uncontested, and in January 1919 gathered in the Mansion House in Dublin for the first meeting of Dáil Éireann. At this meeting the Dáil adopted the Irish Declaration of Independence. Because of the Easter Proclamation already adopted in 1916, the Dáil retrospectively ratified the establishment of the Irish Republic.
The decision to establish a republic in 1919, rather than any other form of government, was significant because it amounted to a complete repudiation of all constitutional ties with Great Britain, and set the party against any compromise that might involve initial self-government under the Home Rule Act 1914 or continued membership of the British Empire. The volatile question of the Unionists of the northeast having long indicated that they would never participate in any form of a republic was left unresolved, the six northeastern counties remaining part of the United Kingdom under the Government of Ireland Act, 1920, and later the Anglo-Irish Treaty. [编辑] 政府组成[编辑] 爱尔兰国会The central institution of the republic was Dáil Éireann, a unicameral assembly formed by the majority of Irish MPs elected in the 1918 general election. Two further general elections called by the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland,[5] the head of the British administration in Dublin Castle, were treated by nationalists as elections to the Dáil. The Second Dáil comprised members returned in the 1921 elections for the Parliaments of Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland; the Third Dáil was elected in 1922 as the "provisional parliament" of "Southern Ireland", as provided for by the Anglo-Irish Treaty. At its first meeting the Dáil adopted a brief, provisional constitution known as the Dáil Constitution, as well as a series of basic laws, notably the Democratic Programme. It also passed a Declaration of Independence. [编辑] 内阁The Dáil Constitution vested executive authority in a cabinet called the "Aireacht" or "Ministry". The Aireacht was answerable to the Dáil which elected its head, known initially as the "Príomh Aire". He in turn appointed the ministers. According to the original version of the constitution enacted in January 1919, there were to be four ministers:
In April 1919 the ministry was increased in size to not more than nine ministers. In August 1921 it underwent a final overhaul linked to the creation of a head of state. A ministry of six was created. These were a
A number of previous cabinet ministers, notably Constance Markievicz, were demoted to undersecretary level. The Aireacht met as often as secrecy and safety allowed. [编辑] 国家元首/政府首脑Initially, partly because of the division between republicans and monarchists, the Irish Republic had no head of state. The Republic's leader was known initially as the "Príomh Aire", literally "prime minister" but referred to in the English version of the constitutionas "President of the Ministry". Later the English title President of Dáil Éireann also came to be used for the same post, especially during President de Valera's tour of the United States. In August 1921, de Valera, standing for re-election as President of Dáil Éireann, had the Dáil replace by a new post of "President of the Republic", so that he would be regarded as the head of state in the forthcoming Treaty negotiations, so asserting the claim that the negotiations were between two sovereign states (Ireland's view) and not that it was between the British government and local politicians (Britain's view). After de Valera's resignation in January 1922, his successors Griffith and Cosgrave called themselves "President of Dáil Éireann". [编辑] 军事The military branch of the Irish Republic were the Irish Volunteers who, in the course of the War of Independence, who were formally renamed the "Irish Republican Army" to reflect their status as the national army of the declared republic. Despite being theoretically under the command of the Dáil's Ministry, in practice individual IRA columns enjoyed a high level of autonomy, subject to H.Q. in Dublin. Arrangements were made in August 1920 for the volunteers to swear an oath of allegiance to the Dáil. [编辑] 司法与警察The judicial arm of the Irish Republic consisted of a network of Dáil Courts administered by IRA officers, which at first operated in parallel with the British judicial system, and gradually came to supersede it as public opinion swung against the British in some parts of the island. In other cases the Dáil Courts proved more popular because of the speed and efficiency of their functioning, compared to the local Assize courts. These were first established in June 1919 and filled a vacuum at the local level. Following the Treaty of July 1921 to the formal end of the Republic they proved unable to deal with most violent crimes. The enforcement of law and the decrees of the Dáil Courts was vested in the Irish Republican Police. [编辑] 运作The Irish Republic had some of the attributes of a functioning state; a ministry (with a head of state in the latter stages), a parliament, a courts system, a police force and a constitution. The extent to which these functioned fluctuated in different parts of the island, with the success or otherwise of republican institutions depending on the brutality of the Black and Tans and Auxiliaries. The more brutal the 'Tans' the more they alienated the local populace from the Dublin Castle administration and Assize courts and the greater success the republican alternatives had. At the height of the Irish War of Independence, as Tan atrocities reached such as scale as to result in the burning of the city of Cork (leading to widespread criticism in the United States and from King George V the Republican Police and Dáil courts reached their zenith, and senior barristers who had qualified within the British courts system also represented defendants in the Dáil Courts. After the Treaty was signed, the continuing effectiveness of the Dail courts and police was seen to be patchy until after the Civil War. The cabinet met frequently, though necessarily in secret, and dealt with everyday matters as well as the conduct of the war. Support for the Republic, though it ebbed and flowed constantly during the war, was strongest in the south of the country. The claim to authority of the Irish Republic was rejected in Unionist-dominated Northern Ireland, whose parliament first sat on 7 July 1921, south county Dublin and in other pockets in the country. Historians debate the extent to which the Republic was accepted by the ordinary citizens, and whether that acceptance where it existed was positive (the endorsement of its principles) or negative (revulsion at the behaviour of the Black and Tans, or fear of the Irish Republican Army). [编辑] 承认Efforts by President de Valera in the United States, and the republic's "ambassador" at the Versailles Peace Conference, Sean T. O'Kelly, to win international recognition failed. O'Kelly had already established the Republic's "embassy" in Paris in April of 1919, and Dr. Patrick MacCartan set one up in Washington D.C. at the same time. Despite heavy lobbying from prominent Irish-Americans, President Woodrow Wilson refused to raise the Irish case at the conference. The only foreign recognition won for the Irish Republic occurred when the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, under Vladimir Lenin, borrowed money from Michael Collins' Ministry of Finance and paid it back in the Russian Crown Jewels. The issue of recognition raises the question of how much the new Dáil understood about diplomacy, statesmanship and the wider world outside Ireland; however, Wilson had promised self-determination for nations and international norms were changing. The main problem was that the Irish Republic's Declaration of Independence of January 1919 was hostile to Britain, which was one of the four main powers arranging terms at Versailles. The RSFSR was also not invited to Versailles. Although armistices were holding, World War I was technically unfinished until the treaties ending it were signed, starting with Germany on 28 June 1919. The Republic's envoys depended on numerous supporters in America to make their case, not an element considered by international lawyers and statesmen. The British view was that the 73 new Sinn Fein members of parliament had chosen not to take their seats at Westminster, and that an Irish settlement would be arranged after the treaties with the former Central Powers had been signed off, involving Sinn Fein as the representatives of the majority, whether or not it had proclaimed a republic. The Irish Republic was not recognised by the British government. Because its original contents were not seen as workable, the government under David Lloyd George abandoned plans to amend the Third Home Rule Act enacted in 1914. As originally proposed in 1918 by Walter Long, the British cabinet decided in September 1919 to work on a proposal and in 1920 they opted in the Government of Ireland Act, 1920. This allowed for two home rule Irelands, partitioning Ireland into Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland. Each Ireland was to have a two bicameral parliaments, with a shared chief executive, the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, and a Council of Ireland which was intended to be an embryonic all-Ireland single parliament. The proposal was greeted with mild enthusiasm among Irish Unionists in the new Northern Ireland, who had never sought their own home rule, but was rejected by a combination of Irish Republicans, Irish Nationalists and Irish Unionists who were not in Northern Ireland. While rejecting the right of the British parliament to legislate for Ireland, Sinn Fein took the opportunity of the two general elections in May 1921, one in the north and one in the south, to seek a renewed mandate for the Republic. In reality no contests resulted in the south, with all seats returning the nominated Sinn Fein candidate. The new parliament in Belfast first sat on 7 June 1921, and while it did not formally recognise the Republic its premier, Sir James Craig, had secretly met with Eamon de Valera in Dublin in May 1921; a de facto recognition of his position. The Truce signed between representatives of the Dáil and Britain was agreed on 9 July 1921, to become effective from noon on 11 July. This marked the end of the Irish War of Independence. On 14 July 1921 Eamon de Valera as president, met David Lloyd George for the first time to find some common ground for a settlement. In August, in preparation for the formalities, de Valera had the Dáil upgrade his status from prime minister to full President of the Republic. As a head of state he then accredited envoys plenipotentiary, an accreditation approved by the Dáil. This accreditation gave them the legal ability to sign a treaty without waiting for approval from the Republic's cabinet, some of whose members were among the envoys. By September the British called for a conference with the envoys 'to ascertain how the association of Ireland with the community of nations known as the British Empire can best be reconciled with Irish national aspirations'. De Valera replied on 12 September 'Our nation has formally declared its independence and recognises itself as a sovereign State.' The same invitation was repeated and negotiations started on 11 October. [编辑] 英爱条约Each side in the 1921 negotiations used sufficiently elastic language to enable the Republic's delegates to suggest that was taking place was inter-state negotiations, while allowing the British Government to suggest that it was an internal United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland matter. The Anglo-Irish Treaty, when signed on 6 December, was similarly put through three processes to satisfy both sides. It was
Finally, the two structures of government (the British government's administration in Dublin Castle) and the Republic's began a process of convergence, to cover the year until the coming into force of the new Irish Free State. [编辑] 解散
By approving the Anglo-Irish Treaty on 7 January 1922 and the Constitution of the Irish Free State in October 1922 the Dáil agreed to the replacement of the Republic with the system of constitutional monarchy of the Irish Free State. In 1922 the Provisional Government came into being but the Irish Republic was not dismantled, rather its institutions continued to operate in parallel with those of the provisional authority. Michael Collins was designated as Chairman of the Provisional Government, in theory answerable to the House of Commons of Southern Ireland and appointed by the Lord Lieutenant[6] In contrast the Republic's Aireacht continued with Arthur Griffith as President of the Republic following de Valera's resignation.[7] However the two administrations were progressively merged until in August, following the deaths of both Griffith and Collins, William T. Cosgrave assumed both leadership positions simultaneously and so the two most important offices effectively became one, producing a unique constitutional hybrid; a crown-appointed prime minister and a president of a republic. Both parliaments, the Second Dáil and the House of Commons, were replaced by a joint parliament known variously as the Third Dáil or the Provisional Parliament which as a constituent assembly enacted a new constitution with the passage of the Irish Free State Constitution Act. On the 6 December 1922 the Constitution of the Irish Free State came into effect and the institutions of both the Irish Republic and the Provisional Government ceased to be. [编辑] 遗存The goal of those who established the Irish Republic was to create a de facto independent republic comprising the whole island of Ireland. They failed in this goal, but the Irish Republic paved the way for the creation of the Irish Free State, a Commonwealth dominion with self-government, and a territory that extended to the 26 counties originally foreseen in the 1914 Home Rule Act. By 1949 the Free State became a fully independent republic, the 'Republic of Ireland'. Speaking in the Dáil on 29th April, 1997 Bertie Ahern, the leader of the Fianna Fáil party, which is the successor of the anti-treaty Sinn Féin, and the then Taoiseach (head of government) John Bruton, leader of the Fine Gael party, which is the successor of the pro-Treaty Sinn Féin, agreed that as a basis for inclusive commemoration, the date from which Irish independence should be measured was not the formation of the Irish Republic in 1919, but the 1922 establishment of the Irish Free State, the first modern Irish state to achieve de facto independence and international recognition. [编辑] 后条约共和派传统中的爱尔兰共和国Since the Civil War of 1922-1923 the Irish Republic has been an important symbol for radical republicans. The Civil War began in June 1922 when both Sinn Féin and the IRA split between those pragmatists, who supported the Treaty, and those hardline republicans who opposed the compromises it contained. In particular the anti-Treaty faction objected to the continued role in the Irish constitution that would be granted to the British monarch under the Irish Free State. When the Dáil ratified the Treaty its opponents of the agreement walked out, arguing that the Dáil was attempting to 'destroy' the Irish Republic, and that its members had no right to do so. After the Irish electorate voted in a majority of pro-Treaty candidates to the Dáil, Éamon de Valera declared that "the people have no right to do wrong." Opponents of the Treaty refused to recognise either the Provisional Government or, when it was established, the Irish Free State, insisting that the Irish Republic continued to exist as a de jure entity. The anti-treaty faction also refused to recognise the Third Dáil, as the Second Dáil had never met to dissolve itself. These Republicans therefore considered the Third Dáil, and all future institutions arising from it, as illegal. (See Second Dáil). The anti-Treaty side was defeated in the Civil War. Most militant opposition to the Free State came to an end on May 24 1923 when Frank Aiken, chief-of-staff of the IRA issued the order to "dump arms" and Eamon de Valera issued his address to the "Legion of the Rearguard". Éamon de Valera continued as president of the Sinn Féin political party. In March 1926, Éamon de Valera, along with most anti-Treaty politicians, founded a new party called 'Fianna Fáil' and ended their boycott of the institutions of the Free State. Nonetheless a small hard-line minority continued to reject the legitimacy of the Free State and its successor, the Republic of Ireland. Most importantly, the Provisional IRA (PIRA), which conducted a campaign of bombings and shootings in Northern Ireland from the late 1960s until 1998, and its political wing, the modern Sinn Féin party, used to insist that the Irish Republic was still legally in existence, with the IRA as its national army, and the IRA Army Council Ireland's sole legitimate government. This view are is still upheld by Republican Sinn Féin and the Continuity IRA. As of 2006, the Provisional IRA continue to use the title Oglaigh na hÉireann (lit. Volunteers of Ireland), the official Irish title for the Republic of Ireland's armed forces. Latterly Gerry Adams, president of Sinn Féin, has recast the doctrine to state that there is no legitimate government in Ireland, but his party has both recognised the legal fact of partition by signing the Good Friday Agreement and accepted the legitimacy of the government of the Republic of Ireland by openly speculating on taking up posts in a coalition government. However Sinn Féin still avoids giving linguistic legitimacy to either the Republic of Ireland or Northern Ireland by refusing to use the name of either, referring still to the "twenty-six counties" and the "six countries", or "the state" and "the North". [编辑] 注解
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